Showing posts with label biology. Show all posts
Showing posts with label biology. Show all posts


Stunning 3D Scan Reveals the Inner Workings of a Mouse Brain

A pioneering research has produced the most comprehensive map of a mammalian brain ever recorded.

The 3D diagrams showcase over two miles of neural connections, nearly 100,000 neurons, and approximately 500 million synaptic junctions—all within a fragment of mouse brain not larger than a speck of sand.

Dr. Clay Reid from the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle stated, "Within this minuscule particle lies an intricate network of connections, governed by principles we are just starting to unravel."

The specimen originates from an external section of the brain called the cortex, a zone that plays a role in vision. Times reports.

Dr Forrest Collman, of the same Institute, said: 'By studying how the cortex functions in the mouse brain, we can generate better ideas and hypotheses about how our own brains work.'

His group thinks that having the ability to chart and examine the brain’s internal connections at this scale could pave new avenues for understanding and addressing neurological disorders like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's and autism.

He described it as the 'Google Maps for the brain', which doesn't just show major motorways but every small street, house and room inside that house.

Similar to how individuals utilize Google Maps to determine the optimal path from location A to location B, or simply to verify if such a route is possible, this comprehensive neural map enables researchers to identify whether two neurons are interconnected and precisely pinpoint where these connections take place.

What made this research particularly intriguing was that the mice needed their brain activity documented as they viewed YouTube videos. This enabled researchers to observe the interactions between various clusters of neurons.

Following this, they cut the tissue into 25,000 slices, with each slice being merely 1/400th the thickness of a human hair, before examining them through powerful electron microscopes.

The images were combined to generate a 3D model with the help of artificial intelligence. The final result not only depicts the structure but also illustrates which brain cells interact and the manner in which they do so.

Nuno Macarico da Costa from the Allen Institute remarked that one of the outcomes of their project reveals "just how extraordinarily beautiful the brain truly is."

Simply observing these neurons allows one to grasp their complexity and size, instilling an overwhelming sense of wonder towards the brain.

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All Blue-Eyed People Trace Back to One Ancestor, Worldwide

Blue-eyed people, listen up.

Ever wondered why your Why are their eyes the color they are? Well wonder no more.

According to researchers, every individual with blue eyes can trace their ancestry back to a lone European from between 6,000 and 10,000 years ago.

What method did they use to figure it out? Initially, all humans possessed brown eyes in different tones until a particular genetic alteration brought about the change.

The mutation occurs in a gene named HERC2 and this gene turns off OCA2, which is responsible for determining the amount of brown pigment our bodies produce.

That's why eyes appear blue.

Regarding descent from the same individual, the proof stems from the fact that everyone blue eyed person Alive today possess this identical genetic alteration.

Researchers estimate that merely 8 to 10 percent of people have blue eyes, and eye color doesn’t finalize during childhood; thus, the brown pigment might emerge over time, leading some blue-eyed kids to eventually develop brown eyes as adults.

Therefore, if you possess blue eyes, you should be aware that - your familial connections extend far wider than you may have previously imagined.

Researchers from the University of Copenhagen published findings on this topic.

Dr. Hans Eiberg from the Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine said Initially, everyone had brown eyes. However, a genetic alteration impacting the OCA2 gene within our chromosomes led to the development of a 'switch' that essentially "deactivated" the capability to generate brown eye color.

The article was initially released on October 3, 2022.

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New Study Unveils How Hydrogen Sparked Life's Origins

New research shows how hydrogen gas plays a vital role in producing energy inside cells, and was critical for initiating life on Earth. Earth .

Now a study The research conducted by William F. Martin from the University of Düsseldorf and Martina Preiner from the Max Planck Institute (MPI) for Terrestrial Microbiology in Marburg emphasizes how early cellular life forms utilized hydrogen gas as their primary energy source.

The initial cells on our planet emerged from hydrogen gas generated in hydrothermal vents; the interaction between this hydrogen gas and carbon dioxide led to the formation of living molecules.

To extract energy, cells must drive electrons from hydrogen gas up an energetic gradient. "This is akin to compelling a river to flow upward rather than downward; thus, cells require sophisticated mechanisms," clarifies Max Brabender, one of the researchers involved in the study. The method through which cells accomplished this feat was uncovered just fifteen years prior by Wolfgang Buckel and Rolf Thauer.

They discovered that cells direct the two electrons from hydrogen along separate routes. One electron descends significantly, triggering a mechanism similar to a pulley system that propels the second electron upward against an energy gradient. This phenomenon is referred to as electron bifurcation. Within cells, this process involves multiple enzymes.

Therefore, figuring out how an endergonic reaction could take place in early evolution, before the existence of enzymes or cells, has been quite a challenging puzzle to solve.

Multiple theories suggest how the environment may have propelled electrons to higher energy levels towards ferredoxin prior to the emergence of electron bifurcation," explains Martin. "We've uncovered a mechanism so straightforward that it operates effectively under the natural settings found at hydrothermal vents.

Following the identification of electron bifurcation, researchers determined this mechanism to be both ancient and crucial for microorganisms utilizing hydrogen gas. However, what methods were employed to utilize hydrogen gas for carbon dioxide fixation prior to the emergence of proteins?

“ Metals offer insights," Preiner states. "In the emergence of life, metals within early environmental settings have the ability to drive electrons from hydrogen gas upwards, and traces of this primeval chemical process are still evident in the functioning of contemporary cellular systems."

However, simply having metals is insufficient.

"[Hydrogen gas] also needs to be generated by the environment," adds co-first author Delfina Pereira from Preiner’s laboratory.

Modern and ancient hydrothermal vents produce substantial quantities of hydrogen gas, which can transform iron-bearing minerals into lustrous metallic iron. This phenomenon isn’t novel; however, what’s surprising is that these natural processes occur extensively at hydrothermal vents. Furthermore, this naturally occurring deposit of iron might have been pivotal for the emergence of early life forms.

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Alien Hunt Gets Easier: New Oxygen Reaction Discovery Could Be Key

'Just as oxygen is essential for the lungs, hope is vital to giving purpose to one’s life.'

This quote comes from the book "Eternal Hope" written by Emil Brunner, who was a Swiss theologian.

The man actually intended to convey that oxygen is the key to discovering life outside of our planet.

Oxygen is considered essential for life on Earth because it is primarily generated by living organisms.

However, researchers have found a novel method for oxygen to develop in planetary atmospheres dense with carbon dioxide, eliminating the requirement for living organisms.

Researchers told Space.com How they searched for innovative methods to generate molecular oxygen by colliding CO2 with helium.

This method of producing oxygen is termed an 'abiotic' process, which means it does not entail living organisms.

The enrichment of Earth’s atmosphere with oxygen, occurring approximately between 2.1 to 2.4 billion years ago, remains one of the greatest enigmas in history. Prior to this event, which geologists refer to as the Great Oxidation Event, much of our planet was enveloped in the pungent greenhouse gas CO2.

The presence of oxygen became noticeable in the atmosphere once ancient marine microorganisms developed the capability for photosynthesis. Following their exposure to sunlight, these organisms released oxygen into the environment.

Much of this oxygen did not persist for an extended period. Given the numerous volcanoes active back then, hydrogen likely consumed most of it.

However, after several hundreds of millions of years, as the Earth started to cool down, it provided an opportunity for our unusually oxygen-abundant atmosphere to develop.

Shan Xi Tian and Jie Hu from the University of Science and Technology of China chose to investigate how helium produced through interactions between solar winds and a planet's atmosphere might generate oxygen.

In this process, helium forms ions—charged particles that behave akin to wrecking balls, colliding with CO2 and causing it to smash into other molecules.

'This phenomenon can be observed in Mars' upper atmosphere as it contains numerous He+ ions (from solar winds) along with CO2,' explained Hu.

However, despite the formation of O+, O2+, and CO2+, O2 does not appear, at least not on Mars.

Tian and Hu employed three methods from their toolkit to put their concept to the test.

The initial method is time-of-flight (TOF) mass spectrometry, where particles become ions and are accelerated to achieve equal kinetic energy. The duration taken for them to cover the same distance is utilized to determine their mass.

The duo utilized a 'crossed-beam apparatus' for colliding two molecules, along with 'ion velocity maps' to document the paths and speeds of the resulting ions.

'We discovered a significantly different mechanism for producing O2 from molecular CO2,' Tian stated. 'Specifically, via the interaction between helium ions [He+] and CO2.'

To put it simply, Tian and Hu’s research discovered that life-supporting oxygen might develop on planets with CO2-heavy atmospheres before any living organisms have appeared there.

David Benoit, who serves as a senior lecturer in Molecular Physics and Astrochemistry at the University of Hull’s EA Milne Centre for Astrophysics, now indicates that the quest is underway to locate planets where this might plausibly occur.

'This innovative mechanism is expected to be included in upcoming models designed to forecast the atmospheres of other planets,' Benoit stated to Space.com. 'It will assist us in more accurately explaining the levels of oxygen we may discover.'

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Pandas Choose Bamboo Over Gut Instinct: Scientists Reveal Why

Pandas Famously fond of bamboo, these cuddly creatures possess digestive tracts similar to those of animals with a preference for meat-based diets. Now, Chinese researchers believe they might understand the reason behind this contradiction.

It is claimed that overindulging in the large, rapidly growing plant can affect the hidden predators' actions and control the bears' olfactory and gustatory senses.

Originating from southwestern China, pandas consume bamboo for as long as 16 hours each day, incorporating a type of genetic material known as microRNA (miRNA) into their blood circulation, as reported in a study released on Friday in the journal Frontiers.

The molecule can affect how genetic data moves throughout pandas' bodies, thereby influencing their behavior, according to research conducted by China West Normal University based in Sichuan province.

Dr. Li Feng, a senior author from the university, stated, "miRNA has a role in regulating the gene expression of giant pandas."

Li and his team discovered that the molecule plays a role in shaping various physiological functions within pandas' bodies, such as development, biological cycles, behaviors, and immune reactions.

"MicroRNAs in bamboo play a role in regulating the sense of smell, taste, and dopamine pathways in giant pandas, all of which are linked to their eating behaviors," he explained.

The researchers think that as a baby panda matures, it will learn to select the ripest and most nourishing bamboo, helping them adjust to a vegetarian diet.

The research relied on blood samples collected from six grown pandas and one young panda. In these samples, researchers identified 57 instances of miRNAs presumably originating from bamboo.

They believe this finding could assist researchers in gaining deeper insights into how plant microRNAs impact animals, which might lead to new approaches for treating or preventing illnesses, as stated in the study.

Although pandas' diets primarily consist of bamboo leaves, stems, and shoots, approximately 1% of what they eat includes other plants and even meats like small rodents, reports the World Wildlife Fund (WWF).

According to the WWF, approximately 1,800 pandas can be found in their natural habitat, wandering across mountains within the Chinese provinces of Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu.

The primary dangers facing wild panda populations are habitat loss and fragmentation, making conservation efforts difficult. Additionally, their low reproductive drive complicates these preservation attempts. Once born, infant pandas are exceedingly delicate.

Over the past few decades, China has significantly increased its endeavors to protect pandas, expanding the number of panda reserves from 12 to 67.

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